i
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The Emergence of Clientelistic Networks in Latin America: A Theoretical Perspective
Abstract
Clientelistic networks have been a regular research topic in Latin American scholarship, particularly over the last three decades. This research has comprehensively addressed their functioning and consequences for democracy. However, less attention has been paid to draw the conditions of emergence of clientelistic networks in Latin America and the contribution contemporary sociological theory can make to widen the analytical scope of the field. By elaborating on different general sociological theories (particularly systems theory and relational sociology) and empirical research on the topic, this article argues that clientelistic networks in Latin America emerge in an operative context of modernization crisis that strongly disturbs the personal modus vivendi. This crisis produces a symbolic framework of deflating value commitments clientelistic networks can deal with only with limited relational effects, that, additionally, negatively impact on the generalization of social trust.Keywords:
Clientelistic networks, Modernization crisis, Social systems, Modus vivendi, Value commitments, Social relations, TrustReferences
Aguirre, J. (2012). Redes Clientelares. Una perspectiva teórica desde el análisis de redes sociales. Documentos de Trabajo 83, Centro Interdisciplinario para el Estudio de Políticas Públicas. Buenos Aires: Ciepp.
Albanese, G. & de Blasio, G. (2014). Who Trust Other More? A Cross-European Study. Empirica, 41, 803-820.
Araujo, K. (2009). Habitar lo social. Santiago: Lom Ediciones.
Archer, M. (2000). Being Human. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Archer, M. (2007). Making our Way Through the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Archer, M. (2009). Teoría social realista. El enfoque morfogenético. Santiago: Ediciones Universidad Alberto Hurtado.
Archer, M. (Ed.) (2013). Social Morphogenesis. Dordrecht: Springer.
Arias, E. (2004). Faith in Our Neighbors: Networks and Social Order in Three Brazilian Favelas. Latin American Politics and Society, 46(1), 1-38.
Arias, E. & Rodrigues, C. (2006). The Myth of Personal Security: Criminal Gangs, Dispute Resolution, and Identity in Rio de Janeiro's Favelas. Latin American Politics & Society, 48(4), 53-81.
Auyero, J. (1999). ‘From the Client's Point(s) of View': How Poor People Perceive and Evaluate Political Clientelism. Theory and Society, 28, 297-334.
Auyero, J. (2000). The Logic of Clientelism in Latin America: An Ethnographic Approach. Latin American Research Review, 35(3), 55-81.
Auyero, J. (2010). Visible Fists, Clandestine Kicks, and Invisible Elbows: Three Forms of Regulating Neoliberal Poverty. European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 89, 5-26.
Auyero, J. (2012). Poor People's Lives and Politics: The Things a Political Ethnographer Knows (and doesn't Know) After 15 Years of Fieldwork. New Perspectives on Turkey, 46, 95-127.
Bourdieu, P. (2005). De la casa del rey a la razón de Estado. Un modelo de la génesis del campo burocrático. En L. Wacquant (coord.), El misterio del ministerio. Pierre Bourdieu y la política democrática (pp. 43-70). Barcelona: Gedisa.
Bringel, B. y Domingues, J. (2015). Global Modernity and Social Contestation. London, SAGE.
Cadenas, H. (2012a). La desigualdad de la sociedad. Diferenciación y desigualdad en la sociedad moderna. Persona y Sociedad, 26(2), 51-77.
Cadenas, H. (2012b). Algunas tendencias de la diferenciación del derecho en Chile. Século XXI - Revista de Ciências Sociais, 2(1), 72-107.
Cadenas, H. (2016). Desigualdad social y teoría de sistemas: la importancia de los medios. Economía y Política, 3(1), 41-69.
Callon, M. (1998). An Essay on Framing and Overflowing: Economic Externalities Revisited by Sociology. The Sociological Review, 46, 244-269
CEPAL (2014). Panorama social de América Latina. Santiago: CEPAL.
CEPAL (2015). Desarrollo social inclusivo. Santiago: CEPAL.
Chávez, J. & Mujica, F. (2015). Sociología de la cooptación: la imposibilidad de ser elite en América Latina y la reforma educacional chilena como testimonio de la ideología de la modernidad inducida. Persona y Sociedad, 29(1), 63-84.
Chernilo, D. (2007). A Social Theory of the Nation-State. London: Routledge.
Cousiño, C. (1990). Razón y ofrenda. Santiago: Universidad Católica de Chile.
Dawsey, J. (1989). Organização do espaço em favelas: Disciplina e reciprocidade. Impulso, 3(6), 7-16.
Deffner, V. (2007). Soziale Verwundbarkeit im ‘Risikoraum Favela' - Eine Analyse des sozialen Raumes auf der Grundlage von Bourdieus ‘Theorie der Praxis'. En R. Wehrhahn (ed.), Risiko und Vulnerabilität in Lateinamerika (pp. 207-232). Kiel: Kieler Geographische Schriften 117.
Domingues, J. (2008). Latin America and Contemporary Modernity: A Sociological Interpretation. London: Routledge.
Donati, P. (2011). Relational Sociology. London: Routledge.
Donati, P. (2015a). Manifesto for a Critical Realist Relational Sociology. International Review of Sociology, 25(1), 86-109.
Donati, P. (2015b). When Relational Subjects Generate Relational Goods. En P. Donati & M. Archer, The Relational Subject (pp. 198-228). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Kindle Edition).
Donati, P. & Archer, M. (2015). The Relational Subject. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Kindle Edition).
Durston, J. (1999). Construyendo capital social comunitario. Revista de la CEPAL, 69, 103-118.
Eisenstadt, S. & Roniger, L. (1984). Patrons, Clients and Friends: Interpersonal Relations and the Structure of Trust in Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Escobar, C. (2002). Clientelism and Citizenship: The Limits of Democratic Reform in Sucre, Colombia. Latin American Perspectives, 29(5), 20-47.
Feltran, G. (2010). Crime e castigo na cidade: os repertórios da justiça e a questão do homicídio nas periferias de São Paulo. Caderno CRH, 23(58), 59-73.
Gambetta, D. (1990). Mafia: The Price of Distrust. En D. Gambetta (Ed.), Trust: Making and Breaking Cooperative Relations (pp. 158-175). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gambetta, D. (2009). Codes of the Underworld. How Criminals Communicate. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Garretón, M. (2000). La sociedad en que vivi(re)mos. Santiago: LOM.
Germani, G. (1962). Política y sociedad en una época en transición. Buenos Aires: Paidós.
Germani, G. (1981). The Sociology of Modernization. London: Transaction Books.
Girola, L. (2011). La cultura de la transgresión. Anomias y cultura del ‘como si' en la sociedad mexicana. Estudios Sociológicos, 29(85), 99-129.
Gordin, J. (2002). The Political and Partisan Determinants of Patronage in Latin America, 1960-1994: A Comparative Perspective. European Journal of Political Research, 41, 513-549.
Gordin, J. (2006). La sustentabilidad política del clientelismo: teoría y observaciones empíricas en América Latina. Documentos CIDOB 13. Barcelona: CIDOB.
Guasti, L. (1977). Peru: Clientelism and Internal Control. En Schmidt, S. (Ed.), Friends, Followers, and Factions: A Reader in Political Clientelism (pp. 422-438). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Habermas, J. (1973). Legitimation Crisis. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Haldane, A. & May, R. (2011). Systemic Risk in Banking Ecosystems. Nature, 469, 351-355.
Heinrichs, D., Hansjürgens, B., & Krellenberg, K. (Eds.) (2011). Risk Habitat Megacity. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
Helmke, G. & Levitsky, S. (Eds.) (2006). Informal Institutions and Democracy. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Hoevel, C. (2013). The Economy of Recognition. Dordrecht: Springer.
Hoevel, C. (2014). La economía del don: modelos y realidades. En O. Groppa & C. Hoevel (Eds.), Economía del don. Perspectivas para Latinoamérica (pp. 85-118). Ciudad Nueva: Buenos Aires.
Holzer, B. (2006). Netzwerke. Bielefeld: transcript Verlag.
Huguet, C. & De Carvalho, I. (2008). Violence in the Brazilian Favelas and the Role of the Police. New Directions in Youth Development, 119, 93-109.
Kitschelt, H. & Wilkinson, S. (2007). Patrons, Clients and Policies: Patterns of Democratic Accountability and Political Competition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Larraín, J. (2000). Identity and modernity in Latin America. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Latinobarómetro (2015). La confianza en América Latina. Santiago: Latinobarómetro.
Lechner, N. (1999). El Estado en el contexto de la modernidad. En R. Lechner, R. Millán, & F. Valdés (Eds.), Reforma del Estado y coordinación social (pp. 39-54) México: Plaza y Valdés.
Lomnitz, L. (1988). Informal Exchange Networks in Formal Systems: A Theoretical Model. American Anthropologist, 90(1), 42-55.
Luhmann, N. (1997). Globalization or World Society: How to Conceive of Modern Society? International Review of Sociology, 7(1), 67-79.
Luhmann, N. (2000). Vertrauen. Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius Verlagsgesellschaft.
Luhmann, N. (2005). Inklusion und Exklusion. En Soziologische Aufklärung 6 (pp. 226-251). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag.
Luhmann, N. (2007). La sociedad de la sociedad. México: Herder.
Mascareño, A. (2012). Die Moderne Lateinamerikas. Bielefeld: transcript Verlag.
Mascareño, A., Goles, E., & Ruz, G. (2016). Crisis in Complex Social Systems: A Social Theory View Illustrated with the Chilean Case. Complexity, DOI 10.1002/cplx.21778.
Maturana, H. (2009). La realidad: ¿Objetiva o construida? Barcelona: Anthropos.
Mignolo, W. (2005). La idea de América Latina. Barcelona: Gedisa.
Morandé, P. (1987). Cultura y modernización en América Latina. Madrid: Ediciones Encuentro.
Narotzky, S. & Moreno, P. (2002). Reciprocity's Dark Side. Negative Reciprocity, Morality and Social Reproduction. Anthropological Theory, 2(3), 281-305.
Neves, M. (2007). A constitutionalização simbólica. São Paulo: Editora Acadêmica.
Oliveros, V. (2013). A Working Machine. Patronage Jobs and Political Services in Argentina. Doctoral Thesis Columbia University. Online en: http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/catalog/ac:161503 [2 de enero 2016].
Parker, C. (1996). Otra lógica en América Latina. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Parsons, T. (1968). On the Concept of Value Commitments. Sociological Inquiry, 38(2), 135-160.
Parsons, T. (1970). The Social System. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Poggi, G. (1978). The Development of Modern State. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Putnam, R. (1993). Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Putnam, R. (Ed.) (2004). Democracies in Flux. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rothstein, B. & Stolle, D. (2003). Introduction: Social Capital in Scandinavia. Scandinavian Political Studies, 26(1), 1-26.
Rutten, R. (2007). Losing Face in Philippine Labor Confrontations: How Shame May Inhibit Worker Activism. En L. Joseph, M. Mahler, & J. Auyero (Eds.), New Perspectives in Political Ethnography. New York: Springer.
Stichweh, R. (2005). Inklusion und Exklusion. Studien zur Gesellschaftstheorie. Bielefeld: transcript Verlag.
Teubner, G. (2012). Constitutional Fragments. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Torsello, D. (2012). Clientelism and Social Trust in Comparative Perspective: Particularism versus Universalism. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 2(23), 71-78.
Tosoni, M. (2010). Niklas Luhmann y Pierre Bourdieu: claves teóricas para la interpretación del clientelismo político en la Argentina. Estudios Sociológicos, 28(83), 359-381.
Verhezen, P. (2005). Gifts and Bribes. An Essay on the Limits of Reciprocity. Leuven: Hoger Instituut Voor Wijsbegeerte.
Willke, H. (2014). Concepciones de regulación política y problemas de gobierno político. Economía y Política, 1(1), 79-118.
Albanese, G. & de Blasio, G. (2014). Who Trust Other More? A Cross-European Study. Empirica, 41, 803-820.
Araujo, K. (2009). Habitar lo social. Santiago: Lom Ediciones.
Archer, M. (2000). Being Human. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Archer, M. (2007). Making our Way Through the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Archer, M. (2009). Teoría social realista. El enfoque morfogenético. Santiago: Ediciones Universidad Alberto Hurtado.
Archer, M. (Ed.) (2013). Social Morphogenesis. Dordrecht: Springer.
Arias, E. (2004). Faith in Our Neighbors: Networks and Social Order in Three Brazilian Favelas. Latin American Politics and Society, 46(1), 1-38.
Arias, E. & Rodrigues, C. (2006). The Myth of Personal Security: Criminal Gangs, Dispute Resolution, and Identity in Rio de Janeiro's Favelas. Latin American Politics & Society, 48(4), 53-81.
Auyero, J. (1999). ‘From the Client's Point(s) of View': How Poor People Perceive and Evaluate Political Clientelism. Theory and Society, 28, 297-334.
Auyero, J. (2000). The Logic of Clientelism in Latin America: An Ethnographic Approach. Latin American Research Review, 35(3), 55-81.
Auyero, J. (2010). Visible Fists, Clandestine Kicks, and Invisible Elbows: Three Forms of Regulating Neoliberal Poverty. European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 89, 5-26.
Auyero, J. (2012). Poor People's Lives and Politics: The Things a Political Ethnographer Knows (and doesn't Know) After 15 Years of Fieldwork. New Perspectives on Turkey, 46, 95-127.
Bourdieu, P. (2005). De la casa del rey a la razón de Estado. Un modelo de la génesis del campo burocrático. En L. Wacquant (coord.), El misterio del ministerio. Pierre Bourdieu y la política democrática (pp. 43-70). Barcelona: Gedisa.
Bringel, B. y Domingues, J. (2015). Global Modernity and Social Contestation. London, SAGE.
Cadenas, H. (2012a). La desigualdad de la sociedad. Diferenciación y desigualdad en la sociedad moderna. Persona y Sociedad, 26(2), 51-77.
Cadenas, H. (2012b). Algunas tendencias de la diferenciación del derecho en Chile. Século XXI - Revista de Ciências Sociais, 2(1), 72-107.
Cadenas, H. (2016). Desigualdad social y teoría de sistemas: la importancia de los medios. Economía y Política, 3(1), 41-69.
Callon, M. (1998). An Essay on Framing and Overflowing: Economic Externalities Revisited by Sociology. The Sociological Review, 46, 244-269
CEPAL (2014). Panorama social de América Latina. Santiago: CEPAL.
CEPAL (2015). Desarrollo social inclusivo. Santiago: CEPAL.
Chávez, J. & Mujica, F. (2015). Sociología de la cooptación: la imposibilidad de ser elite en América Latina y la reforma educacional chilena como testimonio de la ideología de la modernidad inducida. Persona y Sociedad, 29(1), 63-84.
Chernilo, D. (2007). A Social Theory of the Nation-State. London: Routledge.
Cousiño, C. (1990). Razón y ofrenda. Santiago: Universidad Católica de Chile.
Dawsey, J. (1989). Organização do espaço em favelas: Disciplina e reciprocidade. Impulso, 3(6), 7-16.
Deffner, V. (2007). Soziale Verwundbarkeit im ‘Risikoraum Favela' - Eine Analyse des sozialen Raumes auf der Grundlage von Bourdieus ‘Theorie der Praxis'. En R. Wehrhahn (ed.), Risiko und Vulnerabilität in Lateinamerika (pp. 207-232). Kiel: Kieler Geographische Schriften 117.
Domingues, J. (2008). Latin America and Contemporary Modernity: A Sociological Interpretation. London: Routledge.
Donati, P. (2011). Relational Sociology. London: Routledge.
Donati, P. (2015a). Manifesto for a Critical Realist Relational Sociology. International Review of Sociology, 25(1), 86-109.
Donati, P. (2015b). When Relational Subjects Generate Relational Goods. En P. Donati & M. Archer, The Relational Subject (pp. 198-228). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Kindle Edition).
Donati, P. & Archer, M. (2015). The Relational Subject. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (Kindle Edition).
Durston, J. (1999). Construyendo capital social comunitario. Revista de la CEPAL, 69, 103-118.
Eisenstadt, S. & Roniger, L. (1984). Patrons, Clients and Friends: Interpersonal Relations and the Structure of Trust in Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Escobar, C. (2002). Clientelism and Citizenship: The Limits of Democratic Reform in Sucre, Colombia. Latin American Perspectives, 29(5), 20-47.
Feltran, G. (2010). Crime e castigo na cidade: os repertórios da justiça e a questão do homicídio nas periferias de São Paulo. Caderno CRH, 23(58), 59-73.
Gambetta, D. (1990). Mafia: The Price of Distrust. En D. Gambetta (Ed.), Trust: Making and Breaking Cooperative Relations (pp. 158-175). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Gambetta, D. (2009). Codes of the Underworld. How Criminals Communicate. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Garretón, M. (2000). La sociedad en que vivi(re)mos. Santiago: LOM.
Germani, G. (1962). Política y sociedad en una época en transición. Buenos Aires: Paidós.
Germani, G. (1981). The Sociology of Modernization. London: Transaction Books.
Girola, L. (2011). La cultura de la transgresión. Anomias y cultura del ‘como si' en la sociedad mexicana. Estudios Sociológicos, 29(85), 99-129.
Gordin, J. (2002). The Political and Partisan Determinants of Patronage in Latin America, 1960-1994: A Comparative Perspective. European Journal of Political Research, 41, 513-549.
Gordin, J. (2006). La sustentabilidad política del clientelismo: teoría y observaciones empíricas en América Latina. Documentos CIDOB 13. Barcelona: CIDOB.
Guasti, L. (1977). Peru: Clientelism and Internal Control. En Schmidt, S. (Ed.), Friends, Followers, and Factions: A Reader in Political Clientelism (pp. 422-438). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Habermas, J. (1973). Legitimation Crisis. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Haldane, A. & May, R. (2011). Systemic Risk in Banking Ecosystems. Nature, 469, 351-355.
Heinrichs, D., Hansjürgens, B., & Krellenberg, K. (Eds.) (2011). Risk Habitat Megacity. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
Helmke, G. & Levitsky, S. (Eds.) (2006). Informal Institutions and Democracy. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Hoevel, C. (2013). The Economy of Recognition. Dordrecht: Springer.
Hoevel, C. (2014). La economía del don: modelos y realidades. En O. Groppa & C. Hoevel (Eds.), Economía del don. Perspectivas para Latinoamérica (pp. 85-118). Ciudad Nueva: Buenos Aires.
Holzer, B. (2006). Netzwerke. Bielefeld: transcript Verlag.
Huguet, C. & De Carvalho, I. (2008). Violence in the Brazilian Favelas and the Role of the Police. New Directions in Youth Development, 119, 93-109.
Kitschelt, H. & Wilkinson, S. (2007). Patrons, Clients and Policies: Patterns of Democratic Accountability and Political Competition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Larraín, J. (2000). Identity and modernity in Latin America. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Latinobarómetro (2015). La confianza en América Latina. Santiago: Latinobarómetro.
Lechner, N. (1999). El Estado en el contexto de la modernidad. En R. Lechner, R. Millán, & F. Valdés (Eds.), Reforma del Estado y coordinación social (pp. 39-54) México: Plaza y Valdés.
Lomnitz, L. (1988). Informal Exchange Networks in Formal Systems: A Theoretical Model. American Anthropologist, 90(1), 42-55.
Luhmann, N. (1997). Globalization or World Society: How to Conceive of Modern Society? International Review of Sociology, 7(1), 67-79.
Luhmann, N. (2000). Vertrauen. Stuttgart: Lucius & Lucius Verlagsgesellschaft.
Luhmann, N. (2005). Inklusion und Exklusion. En Soziologische Aufklärung 6 (pp. 226-251). Wiesbaden: VS Verlag.
Luhmann, N. (2007). La sociedad de la sociedad. México: Herder.
Mascareño, A. (2012). Die Moderne Lateinamerikas. Bielefeld: transcript Verlag.
Mascareño, A., Goles, E., & Ruz, G. (2016). Crisis in Complex Social Systems: A Social Theory View Illustrated with the Chilean Case. Complexity, DOI 10.1002/cplx.21778.
Maturana, H. (2009). La realidad: ¿Objetiva o construida? Barcelona: Anthropos.
Mignolo, W. (2005). La idea de América Latina. Barcelona: Gedisa.
Morandé, P. (1987). Cultura y modernización en América Latina. Madrid: Ediciones Encuentro.
Narotzky, S. & Moreno, P. (2002). Reciprocity's Dark Side. Negative Reciprocity, Morality and Social Reproduction. Anthropological Theory, 2(3), 281-305.
Neves, M. (2007). A constitutionalização simbólica. São Paulo: Editora Acadêmica.
Oliveros, V. (2013). A Working Machine. Patronage Jobs and Political Services in Argentina. Doctoral Thesis Columbia University. Online en: http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/catalog/ac:161503 [2 de enero 2016].
Parker, C. (1996). Otra lógica en América Latina. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Parsons, T. (1968). On the Concept of Value Commitments. Sociological Inquiry, 38(2), 135-160.
Parsons, T. (1970). The Social System. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Poggi, G. (1978). The Development of Modern State. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Putnam, R. (1993). Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Putnam, R. (Ed.) (2004). Democracies in Flux. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rothstein, B. & Stolle, D. (2003). Introduction: Social Capital in Scandinavia. Scandinavian Political Studies, 26(1), 1-26.
Rutten, R. (2007). Losing Face in Philippine Labor Confrontations: How Shame May Inhibit Worker Activism. En L. Joseph, M. Mahler, & J. Auyero (Eds.), New Perspectives in Political Ethnography. New York: Springer.
Stichweh, R. (2005). Inklusion und Exklusion. Studien zur Gesellschaftstheorie. Bielefeld: transcript Verlag.
Teubner, G. (2012). Constitutional Fragments. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Torsello, D. (2012). Clientelism and Social Trust in Comparative Perspective: Particularism versus Universalism. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 2(23), 71-78.
Tosoni, M. (2010). Niklas Luhmann y Pierre Bourdieu: claves teóricas para la interpretación del clientelismo político en la Argentina. Estudios Sociológicos, 28(83), 359-381.
Verhezen, P. (2005). Gifts and Bribes. An Essay on the Limits of Reciprocity. Leuven: Hoger Instituut Voor Wijsbegeerte.
Willke, H. (2014). Concepciones de regulación política y problemas de gobierno político. Economía y Política, 1(1), 79-118.
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